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rfc:rfc5113

Network Working Group J. Arkko Request for Comments: 5113 Ericsson Category: Informational B. Aboba

                                                             Microsoft
                                                      J. Korhonen, Ed.
                                                           TeliaSonera
                                                               F. Bari
                                                                  AT&T
                                                          January 2008
              Network Discovery and Selection Problem

Status of This Memo

 This memo provides information for the Internet community.  It does
 not specify an Internet standard of any kind.  Distribution of this
 memo is unlimited.

Abstract

 When multiple access networks are available, users may have
 difficulty in selecting which network to connect to and how to
 authenticate with that network.  This document defines the network
 discovery and selection problem, dividing it into multiple sub-
 problems.  Some constraints on potential solutions are outlined, and
 the limitations of several solutions (including existing ones) are
 discussed.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 1] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

Table of Contents

 1.  Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3
   1.1.  Terminology Used in This Document  . . . . . . . . . . . .  4
 2.  Problem Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  7
   2.1.  Discovery of Points of Attachment  . . . . . . . . . . . .  8
   2.2.  Identity Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  9
   2.3.  AAA Routing  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
     2.3.1.  The Default Free Zone  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
     2.3.2.  Route Selection and Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
     2.3.3.  Source Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
   2.4.  Network Capabilities Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
 3.  Design Issues  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
   3.1.  AAA Routing  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
   3.2.  Backward Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
   3.3.  Efficiency Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
   3.4.  Scalability  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
   3.5.  Static Versus Dynamic Discovery  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
   3.6.  Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
   3.7.  Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
 4.  Conclusions  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
 5.  Security Considerations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
 6.  Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
 Appendix A.  Existing Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
   A.1.  IETF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
   A.2.  IEEE 802 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
   A.3.  3GPP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
   A.4.  Other  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
 Appendix B.  Acknowledgements  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 2] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

1. Introduction

 Today, network access clients are typically pre-configured with a
 list of access networks and corresponding identities and credentials.
 However, as network access mechanisms and operators have
 proliferated, it has become increasingly likely that users will
 encounter networks for which no pre-configured settings are
 available, yet which offer desired services and the ability to
 successfully authenticate with the user's home realm.  It is also
 possible that pre-configured settings will not be adequate in some
 situations.  In such a situation, users can have difficulty in
 determining which network to connect to, and how to authenticate to
 that network.
 The problem arises when any of the following conditions are true:
 o  Within a single network, more than one network attachment point is
    available, and the attachment points differ in their roaming
    arrangements, or access to services.  While the link layer
    capabilities of a point of attachment may be advertised, higher-
    layer capabilities, such as roaming arrangements, end-to-end
    quality of service, or Internet access restrictions, may not be.
    As a result, a user may have difficulty determining which services
    are available at each network attachment point, and which
    attachment points it can successfully authenticate to.  For
    example, it is possible that a roaming agreement will only enable
    a user to authenticate to the home realm from some points of
    attachment, but not others.  Similarly, it is possible that access
    to the Internet may be restricted at some points of attachment,
    but not others, or that end-to-end quality of service may not be
    available in all locations.  In these situations, the network
    access client cannot assume that all points of attachment within a
    network offer identical capabilities.
 o  Multiple networks are available for which the user has no
    corresponding pre-configuration.  The user may not have pre-
    configured an identity and associated credentials for use with a
    network, yet it is possible that the user's home realm is
    reachable from that network, enabling the user to successfully
    authenticate.  However, unless the roaming arrangements are
    advertised, the network access client cannot determine a priori
    whether successful authentication is likely.  In this situation,
    it is possible that the user will need to try multiple networks in
    order to find one to which it can successfully authenticate, or it
    is possible that the user will not be able to obtain access at
    all, even though successful authentication is feasible.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 3] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 o  The user has multiple sets of credentials.  Where no pre-
    configuration exists, it is possible that the user will not be
    able to determine which credentials to use with which attachment
    point, or even whether any credentials it possesses will allow it
    to authenticate successfully.  An identity and associated
    credentials can be usable for authentication with multiple
    networks, and not all of these networks will be pre-configured.
    For example, the user could have one set of credentials from a
    public service provider and another set from an employer, and a
    network might enable authentication with one or more of these
    credentials.  Yet, without pre-configuration, multiple
    unsuccessful authentication attempts could be needed for each
    attachment point in order to determine what credentials are
    usable, wasting valuable time and resulting in user frustration.
    In order to choose between multiple attachment points, it can be
    helpful to provide additional information to enable the correct
    credentials to be determined.
 o  There are multiple potential roaming paths between the visited
    realm and the user's home realm, and service parameters or pricing
    differs between them.  In this situation, there could be multiple
    ways for the user to successfully authenticate using the same
    identity and credentials, yet the cost of each approach might
    differ.  In this case, the access network may not be able to
    determine the roaming path that best matches the user's
    preferences.  This can lead to the user being charged more than
    necessary, or not obtaining the desired services.  For example,
    the visited access realm could have both a direct relationship
    with the home realm and an indirect relationship through a roaming
    consortium.  Current Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting
    (AAA) protocols may not be able to route the access request to the
    home AAA sever purely based on the realm within the Network Access
    Identifier (NAI) [RFC4282].  In addition, payload packets can be
    routed or tunneled differently, based on the roaming relationship
    path.  This may have an impact on the available services or their
    pricing.
 In Section 2, the network discovery and selection problem is defined
 and divided into sub-problems.  Some solution constraints are
 outlined in Section 3.  Section 4 provides conclusions and
 suggestions for future work.  Appendix A discusses existing solutions
 to portions of the problem.

1.1. Terminology Used in This Document

 The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
 "SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and "OPTIONAL" in this
 document are to be interpreted as described in [RFC2119].

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 4] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting (AAA)
    AAA protocols with EAP support include Remote Authentication
    Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) [RFC3579] and Diameter [RFC4072].
 Access Point (AP)
    An entity that has station functionality and provides access to
    distribution services via the wireless medium (WM) for associated
    stations.
 Access Technology Selection
    This refers to the selection between access technologies, e.g.,
    802.11, Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), WiMAX.
    The selection will be dependent upon the access technologies
    supported by the device and the availability of networks
    supporting those technologies.
 Bearer Selection
    For some access technologies (e.g., UMTS), there can be a
    possibility for delivery of a service (e.g., voice) by using
    either a circuit-switched or packet-switched bearer.  Bearer
    selection refers to selecting one of the bearer types for service
    delivery.  The decision can be based on support of the bearer type
    by the device and the network as well as user subscription and
    operator preferences.
 Basic Service Set (BSS)
    A set of stations controlled by a single coordination function.
 Decorated NAI
    A NAI specifying a source route.  See Section 2.7 of RFC 4282
    [RFC4282] for more information.
 Extended Service Set (ESS)
    A set of one or more interconnected basic service sets (BSSs) with
    the same Service Set Identifier (SSID) and integrated local area
    networks (LANs), which appears as a single BSS to the logical link
    control layer at any station associated with one of those BSSs.
    This refers to a mechanism that a node uses to discover the
    networks that are reachable from a given access network.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 5] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 Network Access Identifier (NAI)
    The Network Access Identifier (NAI) [RFC4282] is the user identity
    submitted by the client during network access authentication.  In
    roaming, the purpose of the NAI is to identify the user as well as
    to assist in the routing of the authentication request.  Please
    note that the NAI may not necessarily be the same as the user's
    e-mail address or the user identity submitted in an application
    layer authentication.
 Network Access Server (NAS)
    The device that peers connect to in order to obtain access to the
    network.  In Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) terminology,
    this is referred to as the PPTP Access Concentrator (PAC), and in
    Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) terminology, it is referred to
    as the L2TP Access Concentrator (LAC).  In IEEE 802.11, it is
    referred to as an Access Point (AP).
 Network Discovery
    The mechanism used to discover available networks.  The discovery
    mechanism may be passive or active, and depends on the access
    technology.  In passive network discovery, the node listens for
    network announcements; in active network discovery, the node
    solicits network announcements.  It is possible for an access
    technology to utilize both passive and active network discovery
    mechanisms.
 Network Selection
    Selection of an operator/ISP for network access.  Network
    selection occurs prior to network access authentication.
 Realm
    The realm portion of an NAI [RFC4282].
 Realm Selection
    The selection of the realm (and corresponding NAI) used to access
    the network.  A realm can be reachable from more than one access
    network type, and selection of a realm may not enable network
    capabilities.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 6] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 Roaming Capability
    Roaming capability can be loosely defined as the ability to use
    any one of multiple Internet Service Providers (ISPs), while
    maintaining a formal, customer-vendor relationship with only one.
    Examples of cases where roaming capability might be required
    include ISP "confederations" and ISP-provided corporate network
    access support.
 Station (STA)
    A device that contains an IEEE 802.11 conformant medium access
    control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) interface to the wireless
    medium (WM).

2. Problem Definition

 The network discovery and selection problem can be broken down into
 multiple sub-problems.  These include:
 o  Discovery of points of attachment.  This involves the discovery of
    points of attachment in the vicinity, as well as their
    capabilities.
 o  Identifier selection.  This involves selection of the NAI (and
    credentials) used to authenticate to the selected point of
    attachment.
 o  AAA routing.  This involves routing of the AAA conversation back
    to the home AAA server, based on the realm of the selected NAI.
 o  Payload routing.  This involves the routing of data packets, in
    the situation where mechanisms more advanced than destination-
    based routing are required.  While this problem is interesting, it
    is not discussed further in this document.
 o  Network capability discovery.  This involves discovering the
    capabilities of an access network, such as whether certain
    services are reachable through the access network and the charging
    policy.
 Alternatively, the problem can be divided into discovery, decision,
 and selection components.  The AAA routing problem, for instance,
 involves all components: discovery (which mediating networks are
 available), decision (choosing the "best" one), and selection
 (selecting which mediating network to use) components.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 7] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

2.1. Discovery of Points of Attachment

 Traditionally, the discovery of points of attachment has been handled
 by out-of-band mechanisms or link or network layer advertisements.
 RFC 2194 [RFC2194] describes the pre-provisioning of dial-up roaming
 clients, which typically included a list of potential phone numbers
 updated by the provider(s) with which the client had a contractual
 relationship.  RFC 3017 [RFC3017] describes the IETF Proposed
 Standard for the Roaming Access eXtensible Markup Language (XML)
 Document Type Definition (DTD).  This covers not only the attributes
 of the Points of Presence (PoP) and Internet Service Providers
 (ISPs), but also hints on the appropriate NAI to be used with a
 particular PoP.  The XML DTD supports dial-in and X.25 access, but
 has extensible address and media type fields.
 As access networks and the points of attachment have proliferated,
 out-of-band pre-configuration has become increasingly difficult.  For
 networks with many points of attachment, keeping a complete and up-
 to-date list of points of attachment can be difficult.  As a result,
 wireless network access clients typically only attempt to pre-
 configure information relating to access networks, rather than
 individual points of attachment.
 In IEEE 802.11 Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN), the Beacon and
 Probe Request/Response mechanism provides a way for Stations to
 discover Access Points (AP) and the capabilities of those APs.  The
 IEEE 802.11 specification [IEEE.802.11-2003] provides support for
 both passive (Beacon) and active (Probe Request/Response) discovery
 mechanisms; [Fixingapsel] studied the effectiveness of these
 mechanisms.
 Among the Information Elements (IE) included within the Beacon and
 Probe Response is the Service Set Identifier (SSID), a non-unique
 identifier of the network to which an AP is attached.  The Beacon/
 Probe facility therefore enables network discovery, as well as the
 discovery of points of attachment and the capabilities of those
 points of attachment.
 The Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) specifications also
 provide for discovery of points of attachment, as does the Candidate
 Access Router Discovery (CARD) [RFC4066] protocol developed by the
 IETF SEAMOBY Working Group (WG).
 Along with discovery of points of attachment, the capabilities of
 access networks are also typically discovered.  These may include:

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 8] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 o  Access network name (e.g., IEEE 802.11 SSID)
 o  Lower layer security mechanism (e.g., IEEE 802.11 Wired Equivalent
    Privacy (WEP) vs. Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 (WPA2))
 o  Quality of service capabilities (e.g., IEEE 802.11e support)
 o  Bearer capabilities (e.g., circuit-switched, packet-switched, or
    both)
 Even though pre-configuration of access networks scales better than
 pre-configuration of points of attachment, where many access networks
 can be used to authenticate to a home realm, providing complete and
 up-to-date information on each access network can be challenging.
 In such a situation, network access client configuration can be
 minimized by providing information relating to each home realm,
 rather than each access network.  One way to enable this is for an
 access network to support "virtual Access Points" (virtual APs), and
 for each point of attachment to support virtual APs corresponding to
 each reachable home realm.
 While a single IEEE 802.11 network may only utilize a single SSID, it
 may cover a wide geographical area, and as a result, may be
 segmented, utilizing multiple prefixes.  It is possible that a single
 SSID may be advertised on multiple channels, and may support multiple
 access mechanisms (including Universal Access Method (UAM) and IEEE
 802.1X [IEEE.8021X-2004]) which may differ between points of
 attachment.  A single SSID may also support dynamic VLAN access as
 described in [RFC3580], or may support authentication to multiple
 home AAA servers supporting different realms.  As a result, users of
 a single point of attachment, connecting to the same SSID, may not
 have the same set of services available.

2.2. Identity Selection

 As networks proliferate, it becomes more and more likely that a user
 may have multiple identities and credential sets, available for use
 in different situations.  For example, the user may have an account
 with one or more Public WLAN providers, a corporate WLAN, and one or
 more wireless Wide Area Network (WAN) providers.
 Typically, the user will choose an identity and corresponding
 credential set based on the selected network, perhaps with additional
 assistance provided by the chosen authentication mechanism.  For
 example, if Extensible Authentication Protocol - Transport Layer
 Security (EAP-TLS) is the authentication mechanism used with a
 particular network, then the user will select the appropriate EAP-TLS

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 9] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 client certificate based, in part, on the list of trust anchors
 provided by the EAP-TLS server.
 However, in access networks where roaming is enabled, the mapping
 between an access network and an identity/credential set may not be
 one to one.  For example, it is possible for multiple identities to
 be usable on an access network, or for a given identity to be usable
 on a single access network, which may or may not be available.
 Figure 1 illustrates a situation where a user identity may not be
 usable on a potential access network.  In this case, access network 1
 enables access to users within the realm "isp1.example.com", whereas
 access network 3 enables access to users within the realm
 "corp2.example.com"; access network 2 enables access to users within
 both realms.
        ?  ?                 +---------+       +------------------+
         ?                   | Access  |       |                  |
         O_/             _-->| Network |------>|"isp1.example.com"|
        /|              /    |    1    |    _->|                  |
         |              |    +---------+   /   +------------------+
       _/ \_            |                 /
                        |    +---------+ /
 User "subscriber@isp1. |    | Access  |/
   example.com"      -- ? -->| Network |
 also known as          |    |    2    |\
   "employee123@corp2.  |    +---------+ \
   example.com"         |                 \
                        |    +---------+   \_  +-------------------+
                        \_   | Access  |     ->|                   |
                          -->| Network |------>|"corp2.example.com"|
                             |   3     |       |                   |
                             +---------+       +-------------------+
       Figure 1: Two credentials, three possible access networks
 In this situation, a user only possessing an identity within the
 "corp2.example.com" realm can only successfully authenticate to
 access networks 2 or 3; a user possessing an identity within the
 "isp1.example.com" realm can only successfully authenticate to access
 networks 1 or 2; a user possessing identities within both realms can
 connect to any of the access networks.  The question is: how does the
 user figure out which access networks it can successfully
 authenticate to, preferably prior to choosing a point of attachment?
 Traditionally, hints useful in identity selection have been provided
 out-of-band.  For example, the XML DTD, described in [RFC3017],
 enables a client to select between potential points of attachment as

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 10] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 well as to select the NAI and credentials to use in authenticating
 with it.
 Where all points of attachment within an access network enable
 authentication utilizing a set of realms, selection of an access
 network provides knowledge of the identities that a client can use to
 successfully authenticate.  For example, in an access network, the
 set of supported realms corresponding to network name can be pre-
 configured.
 In some cases, it may not be possible to determine the available
 access networks prior to authentication.  For example,
 [IEEE.8021X-2004] does not support network discovery on IEEE 802
 wired networks, so that the peer cannot determine which access
 network it has connected to prior to the initiation of the EAP
 exchange.
 It is also possible for hints to be embedded within credentials.  In
 [RFC4334], usage hints are provided within certificates used for
 wireless authentication.  This involves extending the client's
 certificate to include the SSIDs with which the certificate can be
 used.
 However, there may be situations in which an access network may not
 accept a static set of realms at every point of attachment.  For
 example, as part of a roaming agreement, only points of attachment
 within a given region or country may be made available.  In these
 situations, mechanisms such as hints embedded within credentials or
 pre-configuration of access network to realm mappings may not be
 sufficient.  Instead, it is necessary for the client to discover
 usable identities dynamically.
 This is the problem that RFC 4284 [RFC4284] attempts to solve, using
 the EAP-Request/Identity to communicate a list of supported realms.
 However, the problems inherent in this approach are many, as
 discussed in Appendix A.1.
 Note that identity selection also implies selection of different
 credentials, and potentially, selection of different EAP
 authentication methods.  In some situations this may imply serious
 security vulnerabilities.  These are discussed in depth in Section 5.

2.3. AAA Routing

 Once the identity has been selected, the AAA infrastructure needs to
 route the access request back to the home AAA server.  Typically, the
 routing is based on the Network Access Identifier (NAI) defined in
 [RFC4282].

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 11] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 Where the NAI does not encode a source route, the routing of requests
 is determined by the AAA infrastructure.  As described in [RFC2194],
 most roaming implementations are relatively simple, relying on a
 static realm routing table that determines the next hop based on the
 NAI realm included in the User-Name attribute within the Access-
 Request.  Within RADIUS, the IP address of the home AAA server is
 typically determined based on static mappings of realms to IP
 addresses maintained within RADIUS proxies.
 Diameter [RFC3588] supports mechanisms for intra- and inter-domain
 service discovery, including support for DNS as well as service
 discovery protocols such as Service Location Protocol version 2
 (SLPv2) [RFC2608].  As a result, it may not be necessary to configure
 static tables mapping realms to the IP addresses of Diameter agents.
 However, while this simplifies maintenance of the AAA routing
 infrastructure, it does not necessarily simplify roaming-relationship
 path selection.
 As noted in RFC 2607 [RFC2607], RADIUS proxies are deployed not only
 for routing purposes, but also to mask a number of inadequacies in
 the RADIUS protocol design, such as the lack of standardized
 retransmission behavior and the need for shared secret provisioning
 between each AAA client and server.
 Diameter [RFC3588] supports certificate-based authentication (using
 either TLS or IPsec) as well as Redirect functionality, enabling a
 Diameter client to obtain a referral to the home server from a
 Diameter redirect server, so that the client can contact the home
 server directly.  In situations in which a trust model can be
 established, these Diameter capabilities can enable a reduction in
 the length of the roaming relationship path.
 However, in practice there are a number of pitfalls.  In order for
 certificate-based authentication to enable communication between a
 Network Access Server (NAS) or local proxy and the home AAA server,
 trust anchors need to be configured, and certificates need to be
 selected.  The AAA server certificate needs to chain to a trust
 anchor configured on the AAA client, and the AAA client certificate
 needs to chain to a trust anchor configured on the AAA server.  Where
 multiple potential roaming relationship paths are available, this
 will reflect itself in multiple certificate choices, transforming the
 path selection problem into a certificate selection problem.
 Depending on the functionality supported within the certificate
 selection implementation, this may not make the problem easier to
 solve.  For example, in order to provide the desired control over the
 roaming path, it may be necessary to implement custom certificate
 selection logic, which may be difficult to introduce within a

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 12] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 certificate handling implementation designed for general-purpose
 usage.
 As noted in [RFC4284], it is also possible to utilize an NAI for the
 purposes of source routing.  In this case, the client provides
 guidance to the AAA infrastructure as to how it would like the access
 request to be routed.  An NAI including source-routing information is
 said to be "decorated"; the decoration format is defined in
 [RFC4282].
 When decoration is utilized, the EAP peer provides the decorated NAI
 within the EAP-Response/Identity, and as described in [RFC3579], the
 NAS copies the decorated NAI included in the EAP-Response/Identity
 into the User-Name attribute included within the access request.  As
 the access request transits the roaming relationship path, AAA
 proxies determine the next hop based on the realm included within the
 User-Name attribute, in the process, successively removing decoration
 from the NAI included in the User-Name attribute.  In contrast, the
 decorated NAI included within the EAP-Response/Identity encapsulated
 in the access request remains untouched.  As a result, when the
 access request arrives at the AAA home server, the decorated NAI
 included in the EAP-Response/Identity may differ from the NAI
 included in the User-Name attribute (which may have some or all of
 the decoration removed).  For the purpose of identity verification,
 the EAP server utilizes the NAI in the User-Name attribute, rather
 than the NAI in the EAP-Response/Identity.
 Over the long term, it is expected that the need for NAI "decoration"
 and source routing will disappear.  This is somewhat analogous to the
 evolution of email delivery.  Prior to the widespread proliferation
 of the Internet, it was necessary to gateway between SMTP-based mail
 systems and alternative delivery technologies, such as Unix-to-Unix
 CoPy Protocol (UUCP) and FidoNet.  Prior to the implementation of
 email gateways utilizing MX RR routing, email address-based source-
 routing was used extensively.  However, over time the need for email
 source-routing disappeared.

2.3.1. The Default Free Zone

 AAA clients on the edge of the network, such as NAS devices and local
 AAA proxies, typically maintain a default realm route, providing a
 default next hop for realms not otherwise taken into account within
 the realm routing table.  This permits devices with limited resources
 to maintain a small realm routing table.  Deeper within the AAA
 infrastructure, AAA proxies may be maintained with a "default free"
 realm table, listing next hops for all known realms, but not
 providing a default realm route.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 13] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 While dynamic realm routing protocols are not in use within AAA
 infrastructure today, even if such protocols were to be introduced,
 it is likely that they would be deployed solely within the core AAA
 infrastructure, but not on NAS devices, which are typically resource
 constrained.
 Since NAS devices do not maintain a full realm routing table, they do
 not have knowledge of all the realms reachable from the local
 network.  The situation is analogous to that of Internet hosts or
 edge routers that do not participate in the BGP mesh.  In order for
 an Internet host to determine whether it can reach a destination on
 the Internet, it is necessary to send a packet to the destination.
 Similarly, when a user provides an NAI to the NAS, the NAS does not
 know a priori whether or not the realm encoded in the NAI is
 reachable; it simply forwards the access request to the next hop on
 the roaming relationship path.  Eventually, the access request
 reaches the "default free" zone, where a core AAA proxy determines
 whether or not the realm is reachable.  As described in [RFC4284],
 where EAP authentication is in use, the core AAA proxy can send an
 Access-Reject, or it can send an Access-Challenge encapsulating an
 EAP-Request/Identity containing "realm hints" based on the content of
 the "default free" realm routing table.
 There are a number of intrinsic problems with this approach.  Where
 the "default free" routing table is large, it may not fit within a
 single EAP packet, and the core AAA proxy may not have a mechanism
 for selecting the most promising entries to include.  Even where the
 "default free" realm routing table would fit within a single EAP-
 Request/Identity packet, the core AAA router may not choose to
 include all entries, since the list of realm routes could be
 considered confidential information not appropriate for disclosure to
 hosts seeking network access.  Therefore, it cannot be assumed that
 the list of "realm hints" included within the EAP-Request/Identity is
 complete.  Given this, a NAS or local AAA proxy snooping the EAP-
 Request/Identity cannot rely on it to provide a complete list of
 reachable realms.  The "realm hint" mechanism described in [RFC4284]
 is not a dynamic routing protocol.

2.3.2. Route Selection and Policy

 Along with lack of a dynamic AAA routing protocol, today's AAA
 infrastructure lacks mechanisms for route selection and policy.  As a
 result, multiple routes may exist to a destination realm, without a
 mechanism for the selection of a preferred route.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 14] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 In Figure 2, Roaming Groups 1 and 2 both include a route to the realm
 "a.example.com".  However, these realm routes are not disseminated to
 the NAS along with associated metrics, and, as a result, there is no
 mechanism for implementation of dynamic routing policies (such as
 selection of realm routes by shortest path, or preference for routes
 originating at a given proxy).
                                     +---------+
                                     |         |----> "a.example.com"
                                     | Roaming |
                    +---------+      | Group 1 |
                    |         |----->| Proxy   |----> "b.example.com"
 user "joe@         | Access  |      +---------+
  a.example.com"--->| Provider|
                    |   NAS   |      +---------+
                    |         |----->|         |----> "a.example.com"
                    +---------+      | Roaming |
                                     | Group 2 |
                                     | Proxy   |----> "c.example.com"
                                     +---------+
              Figure 2: Multiple routes to a destination realm
 In the example in Figure 2, access through Roaming Group 1 may be
 less expensive than access through Roaming Group 2, and as a result
 it would be desirable to prefer Roaming Group 1 as a next hop for an
 NAI with a realm of "a.example.com".  However, the only way to obtain
 this result would be to manually configure the NAS realm routing
 table with the following entries:
    Realm            Next Hop
    -----            --------
    b.example.com    Roaming Group 1
    c.example.com    Roaming Group 2
    Default          Roaming Group 1
 While manual configuration may be practical in situations where the
 realm routing table is small and entries are static, where the list
 of supported realms change frequently, or the preferences change
 dynamically, manual configuration will not be manageable.

2.3.3. Source Routing

 Due to the limitations of current AAA routing mechanisms, there are
 situations in which NAI-based source routing is used to influence the
 roaming relationship path.  However, since the AAA proxies on the
 roaming relationship path are constrained by existing relationships,
 NAI-based source routing is not source routing in the classic sense;

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 15] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 it merely suggests preferences that the AAA proxy can choose not to
 accommodate.
 Where realm routes are set up as the result of pre-configuration and
 dynamic route establishment is not supported, if a realm route does
 not exist, then NAI-based source routing cannot establish it.  Even
 where dynamic route establishment is possible, such as where the AAA
 client and server support certificate-based authentication, and AAA
 servers are discoverable (such as via the mechanisms described in
 [RFC3588]), an AAA proxy may choose not to establish a realm route by
 initiating the discovery process based on a suggestion in an NAI-
 based source route.
 Where the realm route does exist, or the AAA proxy is capable of
 establishing it dynamically, the AAA proxy may choose not to
 authorize the client to use it.
 While, in principle, source routing can provide users with better
 control over AAA routing decisions, there are a number of practical
 problems to be overcome.  In order to enable the client to construct
 optimal source routes, it is necessary for it to be provided with a
 complete and up-to-date realm routing table.  However, if a solution
 to this problem were readily available, then it could be applied to
 the AAA routing infrastructure, enabling the selection of routes
 without the need for user intervention.
 As noted in [Eronen04], only a limited number of parameters can be
 updated dynamically.  For example, quality of service or pricing
 information typically will be pre-provisioned or made available on
 the web rather than being updated on a continuous basis.  Where realm
 names are communicated dynamically, the "default free" realm list is
 unlikely to be provided in full since this table could be quite
 large.  Given the constraints on the availability of information, the
 construction of source routes typically needs to occur in the face of
 incomplete knowledge.
 In addition, there are few mechanisms available to audit whether the
 requested source route is honored by the AAA infrastructure.  For
 example, an access network could advertise a realm route to
 "costsless.example.com", while instead routing the access-request
 through "costsmore.example.com".  While the decorated NAI would be
 made available to the home AAA server in the EAP-Response/Identity,
 the home AAA server might have a difficult time verifying that the
 source route requested in the decorated NAI was actually honored by
 the AAA infrastructure.  Similarly, it could be difficult to
 determine whether quality of service (QoS) or other routing requests
 were actually provided as requested.  To some extent, this problem

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 16] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 may be addressed as part of the business arrangements between roaming
 partners, which may provide minimum service-level guarantees.
 Given the potential issues with source routing, conventional AAA
 routing mechanisms are to be preferred wherever possible.  Where an
 error is encountered, such as an attempt to authenticate to an
 unreachable realm, "realm hints" can be provided as described
 [RFC4284].  However, this approach has severe scalability
 limitations, as outlined in Appendix A.1.

2.4. Network Capabilities Discovery

 Network capability discovery focuses on discovery of the services
 offered by networks, not just the capabilities of individual points
 of attachment.  By acquiring additional information on access network
 characteristics, it is possible for users to make a more informed
 access decision.  These characteristics may include:
 o  Roaming relationships between the access network provider and
    other network providers and associated costs.  Where the network
    access client is not pre-configured with an identity and
    credentials corresponding to a local access network, it will need
    to be able to determine whether one or more home realms are
    reachable from an access network so that successful authentication
    can be possible.
 o  EAP authentication methods.  While the EAP authentication methods
    supported by a home realm can only be determined by contacting the
    home AAA server, it is possible that the local realm will also
    support one or more EAP methods.  For example, a user may be able
    to utilize EAP-SIM (Extensible Authentication Protocol -
    Subscriber Identity Module) to authenticate to the access network
    directly, rather than having to authenticate to the home network.
 o  End-to-end quality of service capability.  While local quality of
    service capabilities are typically advertised by the access
    network (e.g., support for Wi-Fi Multimedia (WMM)), the
    availability of end-to-end QoS services may not be advertised.
 o  Service parameters, such as the existence of middleboxes or
    firewalls.  If the network access client is not made aware of the
    Internet access that it will receive on connecting to a point of
    attachment, it is possible that the user may not be able to access
    the desired services.
 Reference [IEEE.11-04-0624] classifies the possible steps at which
 IEEE 802.11 networks can acquire this information:

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 17] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 o  Pre-association
 o  Post-association (or pre-authentication)
 o  Post-authentication
 In the interest of minimizing connectivity delays, all of the
 information required for network selection (including both access
 network capabilities and global characteristics) needs to be provided
 prior to authentication.
 By the time authentication occurs, the node has typically selected
 the access network, the NAI to be used to authenticate, as well as
 the point of attachment.  Should it learn information during the
 authentication process that would cause it to revise one or more of
 those decisions, the node will need to select a new network, point of
 attachment, and/or identity, and then go through the authentication
 process all over again.  Such a process is likely to be both time
 consuming and unreliable.

3. Design Issues

 The following factors should be taken into consideration while
 evaluating solutions to the problem of network selection and
 discovery.

3.1. AAA Routing

 Solutions to the AAA routing issues discussed in Section 2.3 need to
 apply to a wide range of AAA messages, and should not restrict the
 introduction of new AAA or access network functionality.  For
 example, AAA routing mechanisms should work for access requests and
 responses as well as accounting requests and responses and server-
 initiated messages.  Solutions should not restrict the development of
 new AAA attributes, access types, or performance optimizations (such
 as fast handoff support).

3.2. Backward Compatibility

 Solutions need to maintain backward compatibility.  In particular:
 o  Selection-aware clients need to interoperate with legacy NAS
    devices and AAA servers.
 o  Selection-aware AAA infrastructure needs to interoperate with
    legacy clients and NAS devices.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 18] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 For example, selection-aware clients should not transmit packets
 larger than legacy NAS devices or AAA servers can handle.  Where
 protocol extensions are required, changes should be required to as
 few infrastructure elements as possible.  For example, extensions
 that require upgrades to existing NAS devices will be more difficult
 to deploy than proposals that are incrementally deployable based on
 phased upgrades of clients or AAA servers.

3.3. Efficiency Constraints

 Solutions should be efficient as measured by channel utilization,
 bandwidth consumption, handoff delay, and energy utilization.
 Mechanisms that depend on multicast frames need to be designed with
 care since multicast frames are often sent at the lowest supported
 rate and therefore consume considerable channel time as well as
 energy on the part of listening nodes.  Depending on the deployment,
 it is possible for bandwidth to be constrained both on the link, as
 well as in the backend AAA infrastructure.  As a result, chatty
 mechanisms such as keepalives or periodic probe packets are to be
 avoided.  Given the volume handled by AAA servers, solutions should
 also be conscious of adding to the load, particularly in cases where
 this could enable denial-of-service attacks.  For example, it would
 be a bad idea for a NAS to attempt to obtain an updated realm routing
 table by periodically sending probe EAP-Response/Identity packets to
 the AAA infrastructure in order to obtain "realm hints" as described
 in [RFC4284].  Not only would this add significant load to the AAA
 infrastructure (particularly in cases where the AAA server was
 already overloaded, thereby dropping packets resulting in
 retransmission by the NAS), but it would also not provide the NAS
 with a complete realm routing table, for reasons described in
 Section 2.3.
 Battery consumption is a significant constraint for handheld devices.
 Therefore, mechanisms that require significant increases in packets
 transmitted, or the fraction of time during which the host needs to
 listen (such as proposals that require continuous scanning), are to
 be discouraged.  In addition, the solution should not significantly
 impact the time required to complete network attachment.

3.4. Scalability

 Given limitations on frame sizes and channel utilization, it is
 important that solutions scale less than linearly in terms of the
 number of networks and realms supported.  For example, solutions such
 as [RFC4284] increase the size of advertisements in proportion to the
 number of entries in the realm routing table.  This approach does not
 scale to support a large number of networks and realms.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 19] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 Similarly, approaches that utilize separate Beacons for each "virtual
 AP" introduce additional Beacons in proportion to the number of
 networks being advertised.  While such an approach may minimize the
 pre-configuration required for network access clients, the
 proliferation of "virtual APs" can result in high utilization of the
 wireless medium.  For example, the 802.11 Beacon is sent only at a
 rate within the basic rate set, which typically consists of the
 lowest supported rates, or perhaps only the lowest supported rate.
 As a result, "virtual AP" mechanisms that require a separate Beacon
 for each "virtual AP" do not scale well.
 For example, with a Beacon interval of 100 Time Units (TUs) or 102.4
 ms (9.8 Beacons/second), twenty 802.11b "virtual APs" each announcing
 their own Beacon of 170 octets would result in a channel utilization
 of 37.9 percent.  The calculation can be verified as follows:
 1. A single 170-octet Beacon sent at 1 Mbps will utilize the channel
    for 1360 us (1360 bits @ 1 Mbps);
 2. Adding 144 us for the Physical Layer Convergence Procedure (PLCP)
    long preamble (144 bits @ 1 Mbps), 48 us for the PLCP header (48
    bits @ 1 Mbps), 10 us for the Short Interframe Space (SIFS), 50 us
    for the Distributed Interframe Space (DIFS), and 320 us for the
    average minimum Contention Window without backoff (CWmin/2 *
    aSlotTime = 32/2 * 20 us) implies that a single Beacon will
    utilize an 802.11b channel for 1932 us;
 3. Multiply the channel time per Beacon by 196 Beacons/second, and we
    obtain a channel utilization of 378672 us/second = 37.9 percent.
 In addition, since Beacon/Probe Response frames are sent by each AP
 over the wireless medium, stations can only discover APs within
 range, which implies substantial coverage overlap for roaming to
 occur without interruption.  Another issue with the Beacon and Probe
 Request/Response mechanism is that it is either insecure or its
 security can be assured only as part of authenticating to the network
 (e.g., verifying the advertised capabilities within the 4-way
 handshake).
 A number of enhancements have been proposed to the Beacon/Probe
 Response mechanism in order to improve scalability and performance in
 roaming scenarios.  These include allowing APs to announce
 capabilities of neighbor APs as well as their own [IEEE.802.11k].
 More scalable mechanisms for support of "virtual APs" within IEEE
 802.11 have also been proposed [IEEE.802.11v]; generally these
 proposals collapse multiple "virtual AP" advertisements into a single
 advertisement.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 20] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 Higher-layer mechanisms can also be used to improve scalability
 since, by running over IP, they can utilize facilities, such as
 fragmentation, that may not be available at the link layer.  For
 example, in IEEE 802.11, Beacon frames cannot use fragmentation
 because they are multicast frames.

3.5. Static Versus Dynamic Discovery

 "Phone-book" based approaches such as [RFC3017] can provide
 information for automatic selection decisions.  While this approach
 has been applied to wireless access, it typically can only be used
 successfully within a single operator or limited roaming partner
 deployment.  For example, were a "Phone-Book" approach to attempt to
 incorporate information from a large number of roaming partners, it
 could become quite difficult to keep the information simultaneously
 comprehensive and up to date.  As noted in [Priest04] and [GROETING],
 a large fraction of current WLAN access points operate on the default
 SSID, which may make it difficult to distinguish roaming partner
 networks by SSID.  In any case, in wireless networks, dynamic
 discovery is a practical requirement since a node needs to know which
 APs are within range before it can connect.

3.6. Security

 Network discovery and selection mechanisms may introduce new security
 vulnerabilities.  As noted in Section 2.3.1, network operators may
 consider the AAA routing table to be confidential information, and
 therefore may not wish to provide it to unauthenticated peers via the
 mechanism described in RFC 4284.  While the peer could provide a list
 of the realms it supports, with the authenticator choosing one, this
 approach raises privacy concerns.  Since identity selection occurs
 prior to authentication, the peer's supported realms would be sent in
 cleartext, enabling an attacker to determine the realms for which a
 potential victim has credentials.  This risk can be mitigated by
 restricting peer disclosure.  For example, a peer may only disclose
 additional realms in situations where an initially selected identity
 has proved unusable.
 Since network selection occurs prior to authentication, it is
 typically not possible to secure mechanisms for network discovery or
 identity selection, although it may be possible to provide for secure
 confirmation after authentication is complete.  As an example, some
 parameters discovered during network discovery may be confirmable via
 EAP Channel Bindings; others may be confirmed in a subsequent Secure
 Association Protocol handshake.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 21] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 However, there are situations in which advertised parameters may not
 be confirmable.  This could lead to "bidding down" vulnerabilities.
 Section 7.8 of [RFC3748] states:
    Within or associated with each authenticator, it is not
    anticipated that a particular named peer will support a choice of
    methods.  This would make the peer vulnerable to attacks that
    negotiate the least secure method from among a set.  Instead, for
    each named peer, there SHOULD be an indication of exactly one
    method used to authenticate that peer name.  If a peer needs to
    make use of different authentication methods under different
    circumstances, then distinct identities SHOULD be employed, each
    of which identifies exactly one authentication method.
 In practice, where the authenticator operates in "pass-through" mode,
 the EAP method negotiation will occur between the EAP peer and
 server, and therefore the peer will need to associate a single EAP
 method with a given EAP server.  Where multiple EAP servers and
 corresponding identities may be reachable from the same selected
 network, the EAP peer may have difficulty determining which identity
 (and corresponding EAP method) should be used.  Unlike network
 selection, which may be securely confirmed within a Secure
 Association Protocol handshake, identity selection hints provided
 within the EAP-Request/Identity are not secured.
 As a result, where the identity selection mechanism described in RFC
 4284 is used, the "hints" provided could be used by an attacker to
 convince the victim to select an identity corresponding to an EAP
 method offering lesser security (e.g., EAP MD5-Challenge).  One way
 to mitigate this risk is for the peer to only utilize EAP methods
 satisfying the [RFC4017] security requirements, and for the peer to
 select the identity corresponding to the strongest authentication
 method where a choice is available.

3.7. Management

 From an operational point of view, a network device in control of
 network advertisement and providing "realm hints" for guiding the
 network discovery and selection, should at least offer a management
 interface capable of providing status information for operators.
 Status information, such as counters of each selected network and
 used realm, and when RFC 4284 is used, the count of delivered "realm
 hints" might interest operators.  Especially the information related
 to realms that fall into the "default free zone" or the "AAA fails to
 route" are of interest.
 Larger deployments would benefit from a management interface that
 allow full remote configuration capabilities, for example, of "realm

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 22] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 hints" in case of RFC 4284-conforming network devices.  While changes
 to "realm hints" and realm routing information are not expected to be
 frequent, centralized remote management tends to lower the frequency
 of misconfigured devices.

4. Conclusions

 This document describes the network selection and discovery problem.
 In the opinion of the authors, the major findings are as follows:
 o  There is a need for additional work on access network discovery,
    identifier selection, AAA routing, and payload routing.
 o  Credential selection and AAA routing are aspects of the same
    problem, namely identity selection.
 o  When considering selection among a large number of potential
    access networks and points of attachment, the issues described in
    the document become much harder to solve in an automated way,
    particularly if there are constraints on handoff latency.
 o  The proliferation of network discovery technologies within IEEE
    802, IETF, and 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) has the
    potential to become a significant problem going forward.  Without
    a unified approach, multiple non-interoperable solutions may be
    deployed.
 o  New link-layer designs should include efficient distribution of
    network and realm information as a design requirement.
 o  It may not be possible to solve all aspects of the problem for
    legacy NAS devices on existing link layers.  Therefore, a phased
    approach may be more realistic.  For example, a partial solution
    could be made available for existing link layers, with a more
    complete solution requiring support for link layer extensions.
 With respect to specific mechanisms for access network discovery and
 selection:
 o  Studies such as [MACScale] and [Velayos], as well as the
    calculations described in Section 2.1, demonstrate that the IEEE
    802.11 Beacon/Probe Response mechanism has substantial scaling
    issues in situations where a new Beacon is used for each "virtual
    AP".  As a result, a single channel is, in practice, limited to
    less than twenty Beacon announcements with IEEE 802.11b.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 23] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

    The situation is improved substantially with successors, such as
    IEEE 802.11a, that enable additional channels, thus potentially
    increasing the number of potential virtual APs.
    However, even with these enhancements, it is not feasible to
    advertise more than 50 different networks, and probably less in
    most circumstances.
    As a result, there appears to be a need to enhance the scalability
    of IEEE 802.11 network advertisements.
 o  Work is underway in IEEE 802.1, IEEE 802.21, and IEEE 802.11u
    [IEEE.802.11u] to provide enhanced discovery functionality.
    Similarly, IEEE 802.1af [IEEE.802.1af] has discussed the addition
    of network discovery functionality to IEEE 802.1X
    [IEEE.8021X-2004].  However, neither IEEE 802.1AB [IEEE.802.1ab]
    nor IEEE 802.1af is likely to support fragmentation of network
    advertisement frames so that the amount of data that can be
    transported will be limited.
 o  While IEEE 802.11k [IEEE.802.11k] provides support for the
    Neighbor Report, this only provides for gathering of information
    on neighboring 802.11 APs, not points of attachment supporting
    other link layers.  Solution to this problem would appear to
    require coordination across IEEE 802 as well as between standards
    bodies.
 o  Given that EAP does not support fragmentation of EAP-Request/
    Identity packets, the volume of "realm hints" that can be fit with
    these packets is limited.  In addition, within IEEE 802.11, EAP
    packets can only be exchanged within State 3 (associated and
    authenticated).  As a result, use of EAP for realm discovery may
    result in significant delays.  The extension of the realm
    advertisement mechanism defined in [RFC4284] to handle
    advertisement of realm capability information (such as QoS
    provisioning) is not recommended due to semantic and packet size
    limitations [GROETING].  As a result, we believe that extending
    the mechanism described in [RFC4284] for discovery of realm
    capabilities is inappropriate.  Instead, we believe it is more
    appropriate for this functionality to be handled within the link
    layer so that the information can be available early in the
    handoff process.
 o  Where link-layer approaches are not available, higher-layer
    approaches can be considered.  A limitation of higher-layer
    solutions is that they can only optimize the movement of already
    connected hosts, but cannot address scenarios where network
    discovery is required for successful attachment.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 24] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

    Higher-layer alternatives worth considering include the SEAMOBY
    CARD protocol [RFC4066], which enables advertisement of network
    device capabilities over IP, and Device Discovery Protocol (DDP)
    [MARQUES], which provides functionality equivalent to IEEE 802.1AB
    using ASN.1 encoded advertisements sent to a link-local scope
    multicast address.

5. Security Considerations

 All aspects of the network discovery and selection problem are
 security related.  The security issues and requirements have been
 discussed in the previous sections.
 The security requirements for network discovery depend on the type of
 information being discovered.  Some of the parameters may have a
 security impact, such as the claimed name of the network to which the
 user tries to attach.  Unfortunately, current EAP methods do not
 always make the verification of such parameters possible.  EAP
 methods, such as Protected EAP (PEAP) [JOSEFSSON] and EAP-IKEv2
 [IKEV2], may make this possible, however.  There is even an attempt
 to provide a backward-compatible extension to older methods [ARKKO].
 The security requirements for network selection depend on whether the
 selection is considered a mandate or a hint.  In general, treating
 network advertisements as a hint is a more secure approach, since it
 reduces access client vulnerability to forged network advertisements.
 For example, "realm hints" may be ignored by an EAP peer if they are
 incompatible with the security policy corresponding to a selected
 access network.
 Similarly, network access clients may refuse to connect to a point of
 attachment if the advertised security capabilities do not match those
 that have been pre-configured.  For example, if an IEEE 802.11 access
 client has been pre-configured to require WPA2 enterprise support
 within an access network, it may refuse to connect to access points
 advertising support for WEP.
 Where the use of methods that do not satisfy the security
 requirements of [RFC4017] is allowed, it may be possible for an
 attacker to trick a peer into using an insecure EAP method, leading
 to the compromise of long-term credentials.  This can occur either
 where a network is pre-configured to allow use of an insecure EAP
 method, or where connection without pre-configuration is permitted
 using such methods.
 For example, an attacker can spoof a network advertisement, possibly
 downgrading the advertised security capabilities.  The rogue access
 point would then attempt to negotiate an insecure EAP method.  Such

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 25] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 an attack can be prevented if the peer refuses to connect to access
 points not meeting its security requirements, which would include
 requiring use of EAP methods satisfying the [RFC4017] requirements.
 Support for secure discovery could potentially protect against
 spoofing of network advertisements, enabling verifiable information
 to guide connection decisions.  However, development of these
 mechanisms requires solving several difficult engineering and
 deployment problems.
 Since discovery is a prerequisite for authentication, it is not
 possible to protect initial discovery using dynamic keys derived in
 the authentication process.  On the other hand, integrity protection
 of network advertisements utilizing symmetric keys or digital
 signatures would require pre-configuration.

6. Informative References

 [RFC2119]  Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
            Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119, March 1997.
 [RFC1035]  Mockapetris, P., "Domain names - implementation and
            specification", STD 13, RFC 1035, November 1987.
 [RFC3588]  Calhoun, P., Loughney, J., Guttman, E., Zorn, G., and J.
            Arkko, "Diameter Base Protocol", RFC 3588, September 2003.
 [RFC3017]  Riegel, M. and G. Zorn, "XML DTD for Roaming Access Phone
            Book", RFC 3017, December 2000.
 [RFC3748]  Aboba, B., Blunk, L., Vollbrecht, J., Carlson, J., and H.
            Levkowetz, "Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP)",
            RFC 3748, June 2004.
 [RFC4334]  Housley, R. and T. Moore, "Certificate Extensions and
            Attributes Supporting Authentication in Point-to-Point
            Protocol (PPP) and Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN)",
            RFC 4334, February 2006.
 [RFC4282]  Aboba, B., Beadles, M., Arkko, J., and P. Eronen, "The
            Network Access Identifier", RFC 4282, December 2005.
 [RFC3280]  Housley, R., Polk, W., Ford, W., and D. Solo, "Internet
            X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate and
            Certificate Revocation List (CRL) Profile", RFC 3280,
            April 2002.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 26] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 [RFC4072]  Eronen, P., Hiller, T., and G. Zorn, "Diameter Extensible
            Authentication Protocol (EAP) Application", RFC 4072,
            August 2005.
 [RFC3579]  Aboba, B. and P. Calhoun, "RADIUS (Remote Authentication
            Dial In User Service) Support For Extensible
            Authentication Protocol (EAP)", RFC 3579, September 2003.
 [RFC2194]  Aboba, B., Lu, J., Alsop, J., Ding, J., and W. Wang,
            "Review of Roaming Implementations", RFC 2194,
            September 1997.
 [RFC2607]  Aboba, B. and J. Vollbrecht, "Proxy Chaining and Policy
            Implementation in Roaming", RFC 2607, June 1999.
 [RFC2608]  Guttman, E., Perkins, C., Veizades, J., and M. Day,
            "Service Location Protocol, Version 2", RFC 2608,
            June 1999.
 [RFC3580]  Congdon, P., Aboba, B., Smith, A., Zorn, G., and J. Roese,
            "IEEE 802.1X Remote Authentication Dial In User Service
            (RADIUS) Usage Guidelines", RFC 3580, September 2003.
 [RFC4284]  Adrangi, F., Lortz, V., Bari, F., and P. Eronen, "Identity
            Selection Hints for the Extensible Authentication Protocol
            (EAP)", RFC 4284, January 2006.
 [RFC4017]  Stanley, D., Walker, J., and B. Aboba, "Extensible
            Authentication Protocol (EAP) Method Requirements for
            Wireless LANs", RFC 4017, March 2005.
 [RFC2486]  Aboba, B. and M. Beadles, "The Network Access Identifier",
            RFC 2486, January 1999.
 [RFC4066]  Liebsch, M., Singh, A., Chaskar, H., Funato, D., and E.
            Shim, "Candidate Access Router Discovery (CARD)",
            RFC 4066, July 2005.
 [IKEV2]    Tschofenig, H., Kroeselberg, D., Pashalidis, A., Ohba, Y.,
            and F. Bersani, "EAP-IKEv2 Method", Work in Progress,
            September 2007.
 [ARKKO]    Arkko, J. and P. Eronen, "Authenticated Service
            Information for the Extensible Authentication Protocol
            (EAP)", Work in Progress, October 2005.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 27] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 [GROETING] Groeting, W., Berg, S., Tschofenig, H., and M. Ness,
            "Network Selection Implementation Results", Work
            in Progress, July 2004.
 [JOSEFSSON]
            Palekar, A., Simon, D., Salowey, J., Zhou, H., Zorn, G.,
            and S. Josefsson, "Protected EAP Protocol (PEAP) Version
            2", Work in Progress, October 2004.
 [MARQUES]  Enns, R., Marques, P., and D. Morrell, "Device Discovery
            Protocol (DDP)", Work in Progress, May 2003.
 [OHBA]     Taniuchi, K., Ohba, Y., and D. Subir, "IEEE 802.21 Basic
            Schema", Work in Progress, October 2007.
 [IEEE.802.11-2003]
            IEEE, "Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and
            Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications", IEEE Standard
            802.11, 2003.
 [Fixingapsel]
            Judd, G. and P. Steenkiste, "Fixing 802.11 Access Point
            Selection", Sigcomm Poster Session 2002.
 [IEEE.802.11k]
            IEEE, "Draft Ammendment to Standard for Telecommunications
            and Information Exchange Between Systems - LAN/MAN
            Specific Requirements - Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium
            Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY)
            Specifications: Radio Resource Management", IEEE 802.11k,
            D7.0, January 2007.
 [IEEE.802.1ab]
            IEEE, "Draft Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area
            Networks -  Station and Media Access Control Connectivity
            Discovery", IEEE 802.1AB, D1.0, April 2007.
 [IEEE.802.1af]
            IEEE, "Draft Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area
            Networks - Port-Based Network Access Control - Amendment
            1: Authenticated Key Agreement for Media Access Control
            (MAC) Security", IEEE 802.1af, D1.2, January 2007.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 28] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 [IEEE.802.11v]
            IEEE, "Draft Amemdment to Standard  for Information
            Technology - Telecommunications and Information Exchange
            Between Systems - LAN/MAN Specific Requirements - Part 11:
            Wireless Medium Access Control (MAC) and physical layer
            (PHY) specifications: Wireless Network Management",
            IEEE 802.11v, D0.09, March 2007.
 [Eronen04]
            Eronen, P. and J. Arkko, "Role of authorization in
            wireless network security", Extended abstract presented in
            the DIMACS workshop, November 2004.
 [IEEE.11-04-0624]
            Berg, S., "Information to Support Network Selection", IEEE
            Contribution 11-04-0624 2004.
 [Priest04]
            Priest, J., "The State of Wireless London", July 2004.
 [MACScale]
            Heusse, M., "Performance Anomaly of 802.11b", LSR-IMAG
            Laboratory, Grenoble, France, IEEE Infocom 2003.
 [Velayos]  Velayos, H. and G. Karlsson, "Techniques to Reduce IEEE
            802.11b MAC Layer Handover Time", Laboratory for
            Communication Networks, KTH, Royal Institute of
            Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, TRITA-IMIT-LCN R 03:02,
            April 2003.
 [IEEE.802.11u]
            IEEE, "Draft Amendment to STANDARD FOR Information
            Technology -  LAN/MAN Specific Requirements - Part 11:
            Interworking with External Networks; Draft Amendment to
            Standard; IEEE P802.11u/D0.04", IEEE 802.11u, D0.04,
            April 2007.
 [IEEE-11-03-154r1]
            Aboba, B., "Virtual Access Points", IEEE Contribution 11-
            03-154r1, May 2003.
 [IEEE-11-03-0827]
            Hepworth, E., "Co-existence of Different Authentication
            Models", IEEE Contribution 11-03-0827 2003.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 29] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 [11-05-0822-03-000u-tgu-requirements]
            Moreton, M., "TGu Requirements", IEEE Contribution 11-05-
            0822-03-000u-tgu-requirements, August 2005.
 [3GPPSA2WLANTS]
            3GPP, "3GPP System to Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
            interworking; System De scription; Release 6; Stage 2",
            3GPP Technical Specification 23.234, September 2005.
 [3GPP-SA3-030736]
            Ericsson, "Security of EAP and SSID based network
            advertisements", 3GPP Contribution S3-030736,
            November 2003.
 [3GPP.23.122]
            3GPP, "Non-Access-Stratum (NAS) functions related to
            Mobile Station (MS) in idle mode", 3GPP TS 23.122 6.5.0,
            October 2005.
 [WWRF-ANS]
            Eijk, R., Brok, J., Bemmel, J., and B. Busropan, "Access
            Network Selection in a 4G Environment and the Role of
            Terminal and Service Platform", 10th WWRF, New York,
            October 2003.
 [WLAN3G]   Ahmavaara, K., Haverinen, H., and R. Pichna, "Interworking
            Architecture between WLAN and 3G Systems", IEEE
            Communications Magazine, November 2003.
 [INTELe2e]
            Intel, "Wireless LAN (WLAN) End to End Guidelines for
            Enterprises and Public Hotspot Service Providers",
            November 2003.
 [Eronen03]
            Eronen, P., "Network Selection Issues", presentation to
            EAP WG at IETF 58, November 2003.
 [3GPPSA3WLANTS]
            3GPP, "3GPP Technical Specification Group Service and
            System Aspects; 3G Security; Wireless Local Area Network
            (WLAN) interworking security (Release 6); Stage 2",
            3GPP Technical Specification 33.234 v 6.6.0, October 2005.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 30] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 [3GPPCT1WLANTS]
            3GPP, "3GPP System to Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
            interworking; User Equipment (UE) to network protocols;
            Stage 3 (Release 6)", 3GPP Technical Specification 24.234
            v 6.4.0, October 2005.
 [IEEE.802.21]
            IEEE, "Draft IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area
            Networks: Media Independent Handover Services",
            IEEE 802.21, D05.00, April 2007.
 [3GPPCT4WLANTS]
            3GPP, "3GPP system to Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
            interworking; Stage 3 (Release 6)", 3GPP Technical
            Specification 29.234 v 6.4.0, October 2005.
 [IEEE.8021X-2004]
            IEEE, "Local and Metropolitan Area Networks: Port-Based
            Network Access Control", IEEE Standard 802.1X, July 2004.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 31] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

Appendix A. Existing Work

A.1. IETF

 Several IETF WGs have dealt with aspects of the network selection
 problem, including the AAA, EAP, PPP, RADIUS, ROAMOPS, and RADEXT
 WGs.
 ROAMOPS WG developed the NAI, originally defined in [RFC2486], and
 subsequently updated in [RFC4282].  Initial roaming implementations
 are described in [RFC2194], and the use of proxies in roaming is
 addressed in [RFC2607].  The SEAMOBY WG developed CARD [RFC4066],
 which assists in discovery of suitable base stations.  PKIX WG
 produced [RFC3280], which addresses issues of certificate selection.
 The AAA WG developed more sophisticated access routing,
 authentication, and service discovery mechanisms within Diameter
 [RFC3588].
 Adrangi et al.  [RFC4284] defines the use of the EAP-Request/Identity
 to provide "realm hints" useful for identity selection.  The NAI
 syntax described in [RFC4282] enables the construction of source
 routes.  Together, these mechanisms enable the user to determine
 whether it possesses an identity and corresponding credential
 suitable for use with an EAP-capable NAS.  This is particularly
 useful in situations where the lower layer provides limited
 information (such as in wired IEEE 802 networks where IEEE 802.1X
 currently does not provide for advertisement of networks and their
 capabilities).
 However, advertisement mechanisms based on the use of the EAP-
 Request/Identity have scalability problems.  As noted in [RFC3748]
 Section 3.1, the minimum EAP Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) is 1020
 octets, so that an EAP-Request/Identity is only guaranteed to be able
 to include 1015 octets within the Type-Data field.  Since RFC 1035
 [RFC1035] enables Fully Qualified Domain Names (FQDN) to be up to 255
 octets in length, this may not enable the announcement of many
 realms.  The use of network identifiers other than domain names is
 also possible.
 As noted in [Eronen03], the use of the EAP-Request/Identity for realm
 discovery has substantial negative impact on handoff latency, since
 this may result in a station needing to initiate an EAP conversation
 with each Access Point in order to receive an EAP-Request/Identity
 describing which realms are supported.  Since IEEE 802.11-2003 does
 not support use of Class 1 data frames in State 1 (unauthenticated,
 unassociated) within an Extended Service Set (ESS), this implies
 either that the APs must support 802.1X pre-authentication (optional
 in IEEE 802.11i-2004), or that the station must associate with each

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 32] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 AP prior to sending an EAPOL-Start to initiate EAP (here, EAPOL
 refers to EAP over LAN).  This will dramatically increase handoff
 latency.
 Thus, rather than thinking of [RFC4284] as an effective network
 discovery mechanism, it is perhaps better to consider the use of
 "realm hints" as an error recovery technique to be used to inform the
 EAP peer that AAA routing has failed, and perhaps to enable selection
 of an alternate identity that can enable successful authentication.
 Where "realm hints" are only provided in event of a problem, rather
 than as a staple network discovery technique, it is probably best to
 enable "realm hints" to be sent by core AAA proxies in the "default
 free" zone.  This way, it will not be necessary for NASes to send
 "realm hints", which would require them to maintain a complete and
 up-to-date realm routing table, something that cannot be easily
 accomplished given the existing state of AAA routing technology.
 If realm routing tables are manually configured on the NAS, then
 changes in the "default free" realm routing table will not
 automatically be reflected in the realm list advertised by the NAS.
 As a result, a realm advertised by the NAS might not, in fact, be
 reachable, or the NAS might neglect to advertise one or more realms
 that were reachable.  This could result in multiple EAP-Identity
 exchanges, with the initial set of "realm hints" supplied by the NAS
 subsequently updated by "realm hints" provided by a core AAA proxy.
 In general, originating "realm hints" on core AAA proxies appears to
 be a more sound approach, since it provides for "fate sharing" --
 generation of "realm hints" by the same entity (the core AAA proxy)
 that will eventually need to route the request based on the hints.
 This approach is also preferred from a management perspective, since
 only core AAA proxies would need to be updated; no updates would be
 required to NAS devices.

A.2. IEEE 802

 There has been work in several IEEE 802 working groups relating to
 network discovery:
 o  [IEEE.802.11-2003] defines the Beacon and Probe Response
    mechanisms within IEEE 802.11.  Unfortunately, Beacons may be sent
    only at a rate within the base rate set, which typically consists
    of the lowest supported rate, or perhaps the next lowest rate.
    Studies such as [MACScale] have identified MAC layer performance
    problems, and [Velayos] has identified scaling issues from a
    lowering of the Beacon interval.
 o  [IEEE-11-03-0827] discusses the evolution of authentication models
    in WLANs and the need for the network to migrate from existing

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 33] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

    models to new ones, based on either EAP layer indications or
    through the use of SSIDs to represent more than the local network.
    It notes the potential need for management or structuring of the
    SSID space.
    The paper also notes that virtual APs have scalability issues.  It
    does not compare these scalability issues to those of alternative
    solutions, however.
 o  [IEEE-11-03-154r1] discusses mechanisms currently used to provide
    "virtual AP" capabilities within a single physical access point.
    A "virtual AP" appears at the MAC and IP layers to be a distinct
    physical AP.  As noted in the paper, full compatibility with
    existing 802.11 station implementations can only be maintained if
    each "virtual AP" uses a distinct MAC address (BSSID) for use in
    Beacons and Probe Responses.  This paper does not discuss scaling
    issues in detail, but recommends that only a limited number of
    "virtual APs" be supported by a single physical access point.
 o  IEEE 802.11u is working on realm discovery and network selection
    [11-05-0822-03-000u-tgu-requirements] [IEEE.802.11u].  This
    includes a mechanism for enabling a station to determine the
    identities it can use to authenticate to an access network, prior
    to associating with that network.  As noted earlier, solving this
    problem requires the AP to maintain an up-to-date, "default free"
    realm routing table, which is not feasible without dynamic routing
    support within the AAA infrastructure.  Similarly, a priori
    discovery of features supported within home realms (such as
    enrollment) is also difficult to implement in a scalable way,
    absent support for dynamic routing.  Determination of network
    capabilities (such as QoS support) is considerably simpler, since
    these depend solely on the hardware and software contained within
    the AP.  However, 802.11u is working on Generic Advertisement
    Service (GAS) mechanism, which can be used to carry 802.21
    Information Service (IS) messages and, in that way, allow a more
    sophisticated way of delivering information from the network side.
 o  IEEE 802.21 [IEEE.802.21] is developing standards to enable
    handover between heterogeneous link layers, including both IEEE
    802 and non-IEEE 802 networks.  To enable this, a general
    mechanism for capability advertisement is being developed, which
    could conceivably benefit aspects of the network selection
    problem, such as realm discovery.  For example, IEEE 802.21 is
    developing Information Elements (IEs) that may assist with network
    selection, including information relevant to both layer 2 and
    layer 3.  Query mechanisms (including both XML and TLV support)
    are also under development.  IEEE 802.21 also defines a Resource
    Description Framework (RDF) schema to allow use of a query

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 34] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

    language (i.e., SPARQL).  The schema is a normative part of IEEE
    802.21 and also defined in [OHBA].

A.3. 3GPP

 The 3GPP stage 2 technical specification [3GPPSA2WLANTS] covers the
 architecture of 3GPP Interworking WLAN (I-WLAN) with 2G and 3G
 networks.  This specification also discusses realm discovery and
 network selection issues.  The I-WLAN realm discovery procedure
 borrows ideas from the cellular Public Land-based Mobile Network
 (PLMN) selection principles, known as "PLMN Selection".
 In 3GPP PLMN selection [3GPP.23.122], the mobile node monitors
 surrounding cells and prioritizes them based on signal strength
 before selecting a new potential target cell.  Each cell broadcasts
 its PLMN.  A mobile node may automatically select cells that belong
 to its Home PLMN, Registered PLMN, or an allowed set of Visited
 PLMNs.  The PLMN lists are prioritized and stored in the Subscriber
 Identity Module (SIM).  In the case of manual PLMN selection, the
 mobile node lists the PLMNs it learns about from surrounding cells
 and enables the user to choose the desired PLMN.  After the PLMN has
 been selected, cell prioritization takes place in order to select the
 appropriate target cell.
 [WLAN3G] discusses the new realm (PLMN) selection requirements
 introduced by I-WLAN roaming, which support automatic PLMN selection,
 not just manual selection.  Multiple network levels may be present,
 and the hotspot owner may have a contract with a provider who, in
 turn, has a contract with a 3G network, which may have a roaming
 agreement with other networks.
 The I-WLAN specification requires that network discovery be performed
 as specified in the relevant WLAN link layer standards.  In addition
 to network discovery, it is necessary to select intermediary realms
 to enable construction of source routes.  In 3GPP, the intermediary
 networks are PLMNs, and it is assumed that an access network may have
 a roaming agreement with more than one PLMN.  The PLMN may be a Home
 PLMN (HPLMN) or a Visited PLMN (VPLMN), where roaming is supported.
 GSM/UMTS roaming principles are employed for routing AAA requests
 from the VPLMN to the Home Public Land-based Mobile Network (HPLMN)
 using either RADIUS or Diameter.  The procedure for selecting the
 intermediary network has been specified in the stage 3 technical
 specifications [3GPPCT1WLANTS] and [3GPPCT4WLANTS].

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 35] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

 In order to select the PLMN, the following procedure is required:
 o  The user may choose the desired HPLMN or VPLMN manually or let the
    WLAN User Equipment (WLAN UE) choose the PLMN automatically, based
    on user and operator defined preferences.
 o  AAA messages are routed based on the decorated or undecorated NAI.
 o  EAP is utilized as defined in [RFC3748] and [RFC3579].
 o  PLMN advertisement and selection is based on [RFC4284], which
    defines only realm advertisement.  The document refers to the
    potential need for extensibility, though EAP MTU restrictions make
    this difficult.
 The I-WLAN specification states that "realm hints" are only provided
 when an unreachable realm is encountered.  Where VPLMN control is
 required, this is handled via NAI decoration.  The station may
 manually trigger PLMN advertisement by including an unknown realm
 (known as the Alternative NAI) within the EAP-Response/Identity.  A
 realm guaranteed not to be reachable within 3GPP networks is utilized
 for this purpose.
 The I-WLAN security requirements are described in the 3GPP stage 3
 technical specification [3GPPSA3WLANTS].  The security requirements
 for PLMN selection are discussed in 3GPP contribution
 [3GPP-SA3-030736], which concludes that both SSID and EAP-based
 mechanisms have similar security weaknesses.  As a result, it
 recommends that PLMN advertisements should be considered as hints.

A.4. Other

 [INTELe2e] discusses the need for realm selection where an access
 network may have more than one roaming relationship path to a home
 realm.  It also describes solutions to the realm selection problem
 based on EAP, SSID and Protected EAP (PEAP) based mechanisms.
 Eijk et al.  [WWRF-ANS] discusses the realm and network selection
 problem.  The authors concentrate primarily on discovery of access
 networks meeting a set of criteria, noting that information on the
 realm capabilities and reachability inherently resides in home AAA
 servers, and therefore it is not readily available in a central
 location, and may not be easily obtained by NAS devices.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 36] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

Appendix B. Acknowledgements

 The authors of this document would like to especially acknowledge the
 contributions of Farid Adrangi, Michael Richardson, Pasi Eronen, Mark
 Watson, Mark Grayson, Johan Rune, and Tomas Goldbeck-Lowe.
 Input for the early versions of this document has been gathered from
 many sources, including the above persons as well as 3GPP and IEEE
 developments.  We would also like to thank Alper Yegin, Victor Lortz,
 Stephen Hayes, and David Johnston for comments.
 Jouni Korhonen would like to thank the Academy of Finland for
 providing funding to work on this document.

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 37] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

Authors' Addresses

 Jari Arkko
 Ericsson
 Jorvas  02420
 Finland
 EMail: jari.arkko@ericsson.com
 Bernard Aboba
 Microsoft
 One Microsoft Way
 Redmond, WA  98052
 USA
 EMail: bernarda@microsoft.com
 Jouni Korhonen
 TeliaSonera
 Teollisuuskatu 13
 Sonera  FIN-00051
 Finland
 EMail: jouni.korhonen@teliasonera.com
 Farooq Bari
 AT&T
 7277 164th Avenue N.E.
 Redmond  WA  98052
 USA
 EMail: farooq.bari@att.com

Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 38] RFC 5113 Network Discovery and SP January 2008

Full Copyright Statement

 Copyright (C) The IETF Trust (2008).
 This document is subject to the rights, licenses and restrictions
 contained in BCP 78, and except as set forth therein, the authors
 retain all their rights.
 This document and the information contained herein are provided on an
 "AS IS" basis and THE CONTRIBUTOR, THE ORGANIZATION HE/SHE REPRESENTS
 OR IS SPONSORED BY (IF ANY), THE INTERNET SOCIETY, THE IETF TRUST AND
 THE INTERNET ENGINEERING TASK FORCE DISCLAIM ALL WARRANTIES, EXPRESS
 OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO ANY WARRANTY THAT THE USE OF
 THE INFORMATION HEREIN WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY RIGHTS OR ANY IMPLIED
 WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.

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 The IETF takes no position regarding the validity or scope of any
 Intellectual Property Rights or other rights that might be claimed to
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 this document or the extent to which any license under such rights
 might or might not be available; nor does it represent that it has
 made any independent effort to identify any such rights.  Information
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 Copies of IPR disclosures made to the IETF Secretariat and any
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Arkko, et al. Informational [Page 39]

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